The term New Imperialism refers to the expansion and conflicts occurring throughout the globe from the 1840's until 1914. This was a period of renewed colonial expansion, undertaken by powerful industrializing countries in search of resources and markets. These colonizing states, dominantly from Europe, consolidated control of existing colonial territories and moved deep  into new regions; such aggressive movement was made possible by the vastly increased wealth and military might provided by industrial mass production.  (see table of imperial empires)

Societies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific which had remained independent up until the 19^th century were now confronted by powerful and aggressive invaders with steam ships, machine guns, and massive economic power.  In a survey course, we cannot do justice to all the societies impacted during this period, however, we can look at a few prominent examples to glimpse the dynamic and disruptive changes impacting societies all over the world. In this chapter, we discuss New Imperialism and its consequences in the Ottoman empire and India.
 

OTTOMAN DECLINE

The war broadened, however, when Britain and France joined as allies; interestingly, they supported not Christian Russia but rather were allied with the Ottoman empire.   Britain and France joined the Ottoman forces to stop Russian expansion into the Balkans - a foreign policy decision based on balance of power calculations.  The long term agenda was for the British and French to get a foothold in Ottoman territory.  Britain and France sent troops and funds to the Turkish sultan, acting as "allies".   With the aid of this industrial support, the Ottoman Empire did win the war. However, the Ottoman leaders then found themselves with powerful British/ French troops stationed in their territories - troops that had no intention of leaving. The Britain and France used troops now stationed in Ottoman territory to take over swaths of territory formerly controlled by or influenced by Ottoman leaders.  France moved into North Africa (Morocco and Algeria).  Great Britain secured control of Egypt - and ultimately control of the strategically invaluable Suez Canal being built there.

The Ottoman Empire also found itself deeply in debt to these two powers as a result of the war, a debt that simply could not be repaid.  Debt means vulnerability and submission.   Using their power as the Ottoman Empire's creditors, Britain and France demanded economic and territorial concessions, for example the Ottoman state was forced to open its borders to virtually unrestricted Western goods.  Mass produced goods flooded Ottoman markets, completely swamping local, hand-crafted industries. The Ottoman Empire continued to suffer from this debt and increasing weakness throughout the rest of the century.

Finally, by so vividly demonstrating the fundamental weakness of the Ottoman empire, Britain and France helped to spark internal rebellions of subject peoples against the Sultan. Those under Ottoman rule who had long resented Turkish control, now saw the chance to overthrew this repressive imperial control.  Fueled by the passions of nationalism, several independent movements initiated or intensified existing struggles.  In the Balkans, several independence movements successfully ended Ottoman control.  Greece had already broken free of Ottoman control in 1830; after the Crimean War, nationalist groups in Albania, Bulgaria and Serbia fought and successfully ended control by the Ottoman Empire. (atlas-p.84)  By the end of the 19th century, Ottoman control was virtually eliminated in the Balkans, and resulting in a complicated jumble of several new, small states.  In the Near East, Arab leaders initiated rebellion against Ottoman rule that continued into the 20th century - expanding into a full-scale "Arab revolt" during World War I.  (see description)

The immediate result of Ottoman collapse and expulsion from the Balkans was long term instability in this region. We come back to this in Unit 9; the power vacuum created in this region by the collapse of Ottoman power was an important contributing cause of World War I.   And in fact shifting borders and violent conflict in the Balkan region continues to the present day!

By the end of the 19^th century it was clear that the Ottoman empire was fading; it became known as the "sick man" of Europe.  Ultimately, the Sultans completely lost power. In 1908, a group of nationalist Turks (the "Young Turks"), disgusted by the erosion of Ottoman power, overthrew the Sultanate. These Young Turks, however, could not restore the power of the Ottoman Empire. The cataclysmic violence of World War I finished off what was left of this empire in 1918; however, the critical damage done to Ottoman presence in the Mediterranean was a direct result of New Imperialism.  Through the Mediterranean and the Near East, industrialized Britain and France moved in as the new imperial powers, replacing Ottoman influence.

The BEIC, with only a limited number of British soldiers and officials, relied on Indian workers to run things, for example employing the Indian educated elite to work as bureaucratic civil servants, and Indians served in the military as native soldiers (sepoys). At the top level of leadership, however, power was always monopolized by British officers and bureaucrats.  Indians subjects were permanently relegated to lower levels of power by their colonial overlords.

This privately built control of India greatly benefited the country and economy of Great Britain.  Control of India rapidly became a critical component of British global trade. India supplied necessary raw materials such as cotton, indigo, tea, and later opium.  India also bought an estimated one quarter (1/4) of all British goods such as textiles.  Its economic importance to the British empire was absolute and clear to British leaders.  Then, the BEIC almost lost India.  Due to company mismanagement and egregious cultural/religious insensitivity, a rebellion broke out amongst some of the Indian troops, the sepoys. The rebellion spread, and between 1857-1859, British control over India was seriously threatened. It required the concentrated colonial military force of Great Britain to subdue this uprising; this episode is called the Great Rebellion or Sepoy Mutiny. After repressing this rebellion, the British government took control of India away from the BEIC, which had proven itself inadequate to the task of running this valuable colony.

Great Britain consolidated control of India in the 1860's; the royal Viceroy of India ruled India on behalf of Parliament and the Crown.  India's economy was completely directed towards serving Britain's economic needs - the agricultural sector focused on cash crops grown for export.  Local industry was suppressed since Indians were supposed to buy British goods. It in fact became illegal for Indians to even spin cloth at home - clothing HAD TO BE purchased from the British. Long term economic direction of India created a lopsided economy based on production of cash crops and needed resources to Britain, and serving as a non-industrialized market for British goods.

In order to prevent another uprising, the British concentrated on extensive cultural measures to ensure loyal and obedient subjects.  In fact, the continued use of the sepoy system and the Indian Civil Service required training these Indian servants to be "British" in education and loyalty. Thus, after 1859, more intensive cultural imposition by Britain was evident.  Education of Indian subjects took place in English - in fact English became the required language of trade and governance in India.  In school, the educated Indian elite studied Western history and culture, not Indian heritage. Christian missionaries traveled throughout India, seriously antagonizing Muslims and Hindus.  Ignoring the deeply rooted traditions of Hinduism and the caste system and the religious intensity of Islam (the two major traditions in India), Great Britain established political rule and a legal system based on British common law.   Many Hindu and caste traditions were ignored, others were expressly forbidden. Traditions that the British found abhorrent, for example treatment of outcastes, and the practice of sati (whereby a widow threw herself on her dead husbands funeral pyre) were outlawed. (see discussion of this practice)  Islamic law was also pushed aside to be replaced by Western legal principles.

The British hold, strengthened after 1859, continued in India for almost a century.  In fact, Britain expanded its control of what it called "India" into an enormous territory which included India as well as several surrounding regions such as, what is today Pakistan, Afghanistan and Burma (Myanmar).  (see map)  Recognize - in terms of current instability in Central Asia - the British Empire was yet another historical intruder, following a long line of conquerors moving into the hills of Afghanistan and Pakistan.  This period of imperial aggression became another complex part of the history of invasion, cultural clashes and long term tensions in this region.

The British viewed India as a critical part of their global holdings, the "jewel in the crown" of the empire. It took the destructive effects of two world wars to shake the British grip and enable successful decolonization in this region in the 1940's. The long term consequences of over a century of colonial rule in economics, political and cultural changes are still being confronted in India.

CULTURAL LEGACIES OF NEW IMPERIALISM

An interesting question is raised when looking at the British in India (and we see the same issue when looking at Africa in the next chapter).  The debate rages over whether, in the final analysis, the imposed presence of the West in traditional societies such as India, or the Ibo society in Africa, was beneficial. There are some who argue that the British and other New Imperial powers did bring with them progressive ideas such as rule under the law, greater equality under the law, as well as the benefits of Western technology in areas such as medicine and agricultural knowledge. The argument is that in essence the West did have advances to share, and that New Imperialism did result in further spread of scientific abilities and technology (thus improved standard of living) and certainly progressive ideas of law and political/ human rights.

Other historians and commentators passionately disagree. They claim that even if actions such as the outlawing of sati is seen as specifically good, the general impact of overall disruption of traditional structures and societies by outside powers and forces was destructive and unjustified. Despite the fact that Indians benefited from the greater protection of some rights, the medicine, sanitation technology and transportation systems brought in, the costs in terms of destroying native developments in cultural, political and economic areas - costs still evident - were too great.

(see interesting evaluation of the effect of the British in India that looks at both sides)

This is something you need to think about and decide for yourself as an historian.  Recognize, though, that this kind of debate had to be directly confronted - then and now - by all colonized societies. The cultural presence of Europeans in areas such as Africa, India, Asian and Pacific cultures left deep and permanent marks.  Christianity spread, European languages became the primary spoken language of native peoples, capitalist economic structures took root, and in many parts of the world, Western based political and legal systems remain to today.

Colonial subjects, after they gained independence in the 20th century, have had to confront the legacies of the imposed culture of the colonizer - what should be kept, what is valuable and embraced - and what needs to be rejected? How much can and should the older, native traditions be revived? What kind of hybrid is possible of imposed (but beneficial) Western ideas, and the reassertion of native/national traditions?

These prove to be very complex and divisive issues, and this kind of dilemma has proven to be one of the most enduring legacies of the cultural imposition and changes that took place during New Imperialism.  India and the Islamic world are two examples of this forced fusion of cultures.   In the following chapters we look at three more glimpses of the effects of New Imperialism.

IMPERIALISM : INTERNET SOURCES
INDIAN HISTORY INTERNET SOURCEBOOK